Early Studies
The first research study, it could be said, was
on the first Outward Bound program. Although the statistics are not
reported anywhere, the Outward Bound movement continues to claim that the survival rates
of the young merchant seaman were significantly improved, and that thus the program was a
success. Whether such data ever existed is doubtful, but it made
a good story and helped give justification for the continuance of Outward
Bound programs.
In the USA, the first piece of outdoor education
research was carried out in 1947 by the New York Education Department,
examining the effectiveness of its camps (Ewert, 1983). However, given
the
considerable history of camping programs, there was probably also earlier
research conducted. In this respect, the excellent bibliographies of camping research
put together by Betty van der Smissen (1970, 1982) can be recommended:
There were
more than 130 master’s theses and doctoral dissertations focusing on outdoor
education in this era [1950-1960 in the USA]. Almost all of these fall
within the concern of operations, and may be generally classified into four
types: administration, general surveys, proposed programs, and curriculum
articulation. Not quite one-half of the studies are within the
administration field, and include manuals, organizational structure,
personnel, et al. The other studies are fairly equally divided among the
other three types.
In an effort to know what was going on both nation-wide and in specific
state, at least fifteen of the studies, mostly in the latter 50s, were
surveys. Much of the research was very specific to one program in
all of the other three types. Studies of proposed programs outlined
the development and structure of a program for a given school. Many
of the administration studies also were specific to operational concerns
of a given school. Because these studies were so
operationally-specific, they had little impact on educational research in
general.
- p. 117,
van der Smissen (1980)
Classic Studies
Kelly and Baer in the mid-1960's to mid-1970's conducted the
first major research studied into the effect of Outward Bound programs with
delinquent youth, reporting positive, long-term benefits (Kelly,
1974; Kelly & Baer, 1968). These
studies provided a significant boost to Outward Bound programming for youth
at risk and helped to spawn the emergence and legitimization of adventure
therapy. Related link:
Outward Bound Research -
The Early Days.
Marsh, Richards and Barnes (1986a,b)
studied of the effects of standard Outward Bound Australia programs on
multidimensional self-concepts. The positive results were notable
because:
-
they showed positive effects of
self-concept which lasted during an 18 month follow-up;
-
there predictably stronger results in some
areas of self-concept compared with other areas;
-
a large sample (over 300 was used);
-
the results were published in two major
psychological journals.
Conrad and Hedin (1981) conducted a large study of
experiential education programs around America. This was a
particularly well designed study, with national sampling on a variety of
outcomes and independent variables. A major (now difficult to get)
report was produced plus results were reported in the Journal of
Experiential Education, an article which is oft-cited and remains as one of
the most often referenced research studies in outdoor and experiential
education. Also see Conrad and Hedin (1979)
and Conrad and Hedin (1982).
Cason and Gillis (1994) conducted the first meta-analysis of
the adventure education literature, focusing on outcomes for adolescents.
This was followed by the major meta-analysis by Hattie, Marsh, Neill, &
Richards (1997) which reported small-moderate overall outcomes for adventure
education programs, which lasted, even grew, over time, with the highest
results being associated with Outward Bound programs in Australia, longer
programs, and programs with adults. Several other smaller
meta-analyses have since been conducted or are in progress (Hans,
2000; Marsh, 1999;
Bunting & Donley, 2002) and two summaries of the meta-analyses have been written
(Neill & Richards, 1998;
Neill, 2002)
References
Conrad, D., &
Hedin, D. (1979). Johnny says he is learning...through experience.
Journal of Experiential Education, 2 (1).
Conrad, D., & Hedin, D. (1981). National
assessment of experiential education: Summary and implications. Journal
of Experiential Education, 4(2).
Conrad, D., & Hedin, D. (1982). The
impact of experimental
education on adolescent development." Child and Youth Services,
4,
57-76.
Kelly, F.
J. (1974). Outward Bound and Delinquents: A ten year experience.
Paper presented at Conference on Experiential Education, Estes Park, CO
Kelly, F. J., & Baer, D. J. (1968). Outward Bound schools as an
alternative to institutionalization for adolescent delinquent boys.
Boston, MA: Outward Bound, Inc.
Hattie, J., Marsh, H. W., Neill, J. T., & Richards, G. E.
(1997).
Adventure education and Outward Bound: Out-of-class experiences that
make a lasting difference. Review of Educational
Research, 67, 43-87.
Marsh, H. W., Richards, G. E., &
Barnes, J. (1986a). Multidimensional self-concepts: The effect of
participation in an Outward Bound Program. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 50, 195-204.
Marsh, H. W., Richards, G. E., &
Barnes, J. (1986b). Multidimensional self-concepts: A long term follow-up
of the effect of participation in an Outward Bound program. Personality
and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12, 475-492.
Neill, J. T. (2002, January).
Meta-analytic research on the outcomes of outdoor education.
Paper presented to the 6th Biennial Coalition for Education in the
Outdoors Research Symposium, Bradford Woods, IN.
van der Smissen, B. (1980). Impact on
educational research. In W. M. Hammerman (Ed.) Fifty years of
Resident Outdoor Education: 1930-1980: Its Impact on American Education.
Martinsville, IN, American Camping Association.
|