|
Bacon (1987) extended James' (1980) first two stages in the evolution of
Outward Bound programming, by adding a metaphorical model:
-
1st
generation model (James, 1980):
-
"Letting the mountains speak for themselves"
-
Focused on experience alone
-
Dominated Outward Bound and adventure programming in the 1960’s and early
1970’s;
-
2nd
generation model (James, 1980):
-
"Outward Bound Plus"
-
Focused on experience plus discussion about experience
-
Emphasized discussion, group process and imported
techniques
-
Characteristic of outdoor education programs in the 1980’s
-
3rd generation model (Bacon, 1987):
-
"Metaphorical"
-
Stressed
role of experiential metaphors, including "rites of passage"
-
Gained more prominence during the 1990’s, although the "Outward Bound Plus
model is still dominant
Bacon (1987) described the metaphorical model:
The primary goal of the Metaphoric Model is to help a larger
percentage of the group achieve experiential metaphors. Within the context
of that goal, the smaller the introduction, and the less defined the
introduction, the better. Best of all is no introduction; next best is a
relatively undefined introduction such as a reading, poem, or story; and
least preferred is a formal discourse or mini-lecture. However, the
mini-lecture which achieves an experiential metaphor is much to be
preferred over a MST [Mountains Speak for Themselves] or OBP [Outward
Bound Process] model where experiential learning is only attained by a few
students. It is best to strive for a minimal intervention, but to do as
much as necessary to achieve a good outcome.
Bacon (1983) suggested that the metaphoric model be supplemented by a mythic
or archetypal model in which students access ancient patterns of learning by
symbolically recreating the formative challenges of heroes and heroines.
Of course Bacon (1987) conceded these ideas are not new – in fact by
definition such rites of passage are incredibly old.
Priest and Gass
(1997) have expanded on Bacon's three stages, and proposed 6 generations
of facilitation methods in adventure programming. Gass (Gass'
publications) and Gillis (Adventure
Therapy Web), in particular, have written about use of metaphorical
facilitation methods in outdoor education. See also the critique of
the metaphorical approach by
Hovelynck.
|